‘Orientalism’
– Paving the way for post-colonial studies
The book ‘Orientalism’ by Edward Said published
in 1978 was a strong blow to the elite European consciousness. The book exposed
the wrong perceptions of colonialism. It has been 40 years in 2018 since this
book which paved the way for a systematic study of post-colonialism was
published. Though 40 years is a period enough to alter the social, political,
cultural, civilizational traits, the methodology of criticism of Said still has
space for new readings. The significance of ‘Orientalism’ comes forth as it
guided the de-colonial studies that had come up during this period. Said opened
new doors of thoughts for his criticizers including his successors. Edward
Said’s ‘Orientalism’ has played a significant role in equipping the third world
writers to rise to the level of ‘writing back to imperialism from the level of
simply listening to the arguments of imperialism quietly. Edward Said presented
to his successors through the book the materials and ammunitions to
psychologically deconstruct colonialism. He is regarded and revered as the
founder of post-colonial studies. Hamid Dabashi comments “Orientalism was the right book at the right time by
the right author. Solidly established as the pre-eminent literary theorist of
his generation, Said wrote many books and articles before and after
Orientalism. But Orientalism hit the right note at the most momentous occasion
when the postcolonial world at large most needed it - when the condition of
coloniality needed a thematic and theoretical decoupling from the framing of
capitalist modernity at large. We on the postcolonial edges of capitalist
modernity needed a defining text, a totem pole, a worldly testimony, to bring
us all together - and Said was born to write that text and build that edifice.”
Edward
Wadi’ (William) Said was born on November 1, 1935 in Western Jerusalem. He was
later known as Edward Said. He grew up in Palestine, Egypt and Lebanon. His
father was a Palestinian and mother Lebanese. As a token of appreciation of the
services in the First World War, his father was given American citizenship.
Edward Said’s primary education was in the British-American schools in
Jerusalem and Cairo. Said who has an English name as well as an Arabic name and
has an American passport and studies in an Egyptian schools recollects in his
auto-biography regarding the identity crisis. He used Arabic and English
interchangeably and began to see dreams in both languages. When he spoke in
English, the Arabic language echoed inside him. Many of Said’s friends in Egypt
became rulers of Arab nations. His family shifted from Jerusalem to Cairo in
the background of the conflicts arised as a result of the formation of State of
Israel. In 1951 he left for America. He joined Northfield Mount Herman School
in Masachusesst. Following that he pursued Bachelors from Princeton University
and Masters and PhD from Harvard University. In 1963 he joined Columbia
University as a teacher in English literature. He was promoted in 1967 as
Assistant Professor in English and Comparative Literature and later on became
Professor. He continued in this position until retirement. He has also worked
as visiting professor in Stanford, Yale, Johns Hopkins etc. He breathed his
last on September 25 in New York City.
Said
who took initiatives in fundamental research in the field of literature, music,
culture, politics etc. lead an active public life through his writings and
lectures. The cultural criticisms raised by Said were indeed disturbing the
sleep of the conventional thinkers and devotees of imperialism. The elite
Western academic world in one instance declared sacrosanct against him. But
these didn’t deter him from his thoughts or weaken his stands and opinions. He
continuously questioned the logic of the imperialist colonialism. The cooks in
the kitchens of imperialism didn’t have answers for them.
Orientalism is subjected to study
Critical
studies of the research of West about the Orient had come up at different
levels long before the book ‘Orientalism’ was published in 1978. These studies
revealed that the efforts of the West to study and understand the Orient were
not completely naive. The search and investigation of the Western scholars
about the ethnos of the African nations and their traditional monuments were
part of the plans and strategies to create a power and control over the Orient.
It was part of the well-planned colonial project. It was not the reflection of
the pure thirst of knowledge of the West. This fact was indeed advanced by
Norman Daniel before Edward Said. (Book: Islam and the West: The Making of an
image - 1960), Abdul Latheef Tibawi (Book: English speaking Orientalists: A critique of their approach to Islam and
Arab Nationalism), Anwar Abdul Malik (Book: Orientalism in crisis, 1963), Syed
Hussein al Atthas (Book: The myth of Lazy native, 1977) etc. A lot of articles
and essays came out during the 60’s and 70’s.
The
Israeli war of 1967 encouraged Edward Said to view the world in a new
dimension. Said made his pen his sword against the cruelty of Israel against
Palestinians with the support of the imperial powers. He prepares to search in
and out of Orientalism so as to openly expose to the world how Arabs and Islam
are presented in an ugly manner by the West. He realized that the colonial
projects of imperial powers can only be understood by having a sound
understanding of Orientalism. The books and articles mentioned above had
already set the academic atmosphere for this purpose. Edward Said himself had
authored before writing his book articles such as “Shattered Myths” (1975),
“Arab Islam and Dogmas of the West” (1976).
The
oriental studies developed in parallel to the assaults of the colonial powers
in the Asian African countries in the twentieth century. The study of the
Orient by the West had already started in the thirteenth century in relation to
the crusades though it was mainly limited to the needs of the Christian
missionary activities like study of Arabic language and translation of Arabic
books. It resulted in the transmission of a huge chunk of knowledge. When
Arabic studies departments were being set up in European universities in the
eighteenth century the aim of the Oriental studies had transformed from
missionary activities to colonialism. It was the need of colonialism to degrade
Islam and Muslims so as to find reasons for their assaults. Like the
missionaries, Orientalists too took up this responsibility. This is how the
wrong representation of Islam and Muslims becomes an academic need and catalyst
for Europe. It doesn’t mean that there weren’t any solitary scholars who
refused to be the shovels of colonialism. But the public face of Orientalism
was anti-Islam. The studies of Orientalism reveal the fact that the
Oreinatalists didn’t show any compassion or kindness to Islam as they had
showed to non-Islamic cultures. Norman Daniel, Tibawi, etc. have explained
various dimensions of Orientalism. At the same time they have also registered
their thanks towards the good dimensions of Orientalism.
Said’s adaptations
Ziauddin
Sardar has pointed out that before Edward Said’s ‘Orientalism’ was published
the Orientalist criticisms encircled around the borders of different subjects
like history, politics, social science, religious studies etc. Said was able to
gain an upper hand above his predecessors in the arguments. The success of Said
is attributed to the fact that he was able to bring the focus of the discussion
to the point of ‘Orient’ and open up a strong face of debate. According to
Said’s view the ‘Orient’ is a product of the West. The West was formulating the
Orient as part of creating the ‘Other’. They saw Orient as an integrity which
is subjugated under them and which is under their control. After creating two
poles namely the ‘West’ and the ‘Orient’, Orientalism established ‘Orient’ as
them and ‘West’ as us. This was necessary to theorize two such opposite poles
so as to establish the fact that we
(West) are much more efficient and qualified than them (Orient). In this way
‘Orient’ is an alien entity created in a smooth manner. Following that Orient
was marked as the opposite to the West. If the Western individual is decent,
logically sound and civilized, the Orient is bad, superstitious and
uncivilized. It is natural that the civilized has the responsibility of
civilizing the uncivilized and immature. For this purpose control of power was
necessary. This is the logic of colonial imperialism. It is the ‘burden’ that
the white man has taken on his shoulders to conquer and rectify the Africans
and Asians. Edward Said says that the functioning of the Orientalist prejudice
can be understood by researching the two thousand year old history of
domination of the West beginning from the Greek Civilization. Said asserts that
if the Orientalist litigation methods are analyzed vigilantly, the thirst for
the ‘Otherization’ immersed in them can be clearly seen.
Western
Orientalists themselves took the authority to construct the knowledge on the
East (Orient). Through this they decided what Orient is and what should be
Orient. Imaginations and myths had more priority than facts in them. This
proves that their objective was not to understand and learn about a
civilization or a culture different from them and live in harmony and peace
with them. Said calls the imaginations and dreams of the West about the Orient
as ‘latent’ Orientalism and the knowledge that is produced from them as
‘manifest’ Orientalism. Racism and untouchability are the inner essence of latent
Orientalism. This spoils the image of the West about the Orient. The example
for this is the Indian History of Jaimes Mill. According to the definition of,
Orientalism has sprouted from the Western experiences. Oriental studies as the
name suggests is not Orient.
Edward
Said defines Orientalism in three ways. First is the version of an academic
subject and second as a style of thought and the third as a corporate
institution. He points out that as an academic institution the emergence of
Orientalism is in the eighteenth century. Its rise is in the form of different
subjects and sections. This knowledge that has been created through
translations, studies, articles, essays etc. are the foundations of the Orient
modeled by the West. The academic Orientalism flourished along with the
European imperialism in between 1815 and 1914. As a method of thinking
Orientalism presented the East as substandard and West as superior. Said
affirms that this mental attitude was present in all the scholars of
Orientalism. Corporate Orientalism is the effort to establish and ensure
political domination over the Orient. This definition of Edward Said gives a
comprehensive picture of Orientalism as litigation. All the aspects including
social, economical, cultural, political etc. come under this phrase. Following
Michael Foucault Said connected and established Orientalism excellently with
the power centers. He also says in relation to this that ‘Supremacy and the
inequalities in power and money are always present in humanity in all periods’.
This inequality based power relation by visualizing the West above Orient is
what Orientalism is wishing. Said establishes that this is not a fairy tale and
also that this is what they have desired for now and always.
Criticisms
There is no doubt that Edward Said’s
book ‘Orientalism’ when it was published was indeed an intellectual revolution.
It gave the courage to the intellectual world to deconstruct the knowledge
projects of Orientalism with a new vision insight. Though many thinkers had
pointed out these facts, most of them were not able to present the facts with
such vigour, clarity and with the support of theories as Edward Said did. It
was natural that tough criticisms came from the West against Said. Bernard
Lewis, the spokesperson of Western Liberalism titled Said as ‘Anti-West’. The
criticism came up that Said was facing the Eurocentric stands and opinions with
Occidentalism i.e reverse Euro centrism. Mahault Donzé-Magnier says, “While it is undeniable that Said’s work in Orientalism served
as a major entry point world of analysis of post-colonial ideologies, the
limitations of his work render it more complex than simply being a linear and
universally accepted theory on how the Orient is perceived and treated.
Orientalism as defined and supported by Said remains an excellent theory to
understand the past relations between the Orient and the Occident. It allowed
for great discussions to finally take place between the (former) oppressed and
their oppressors but lacks not only a distinction between certain aspects of
Orientalism, such as institutional versus social forms but also promotes parts
of the ideology it is fighting against.”
Ziaudin
Sardar blames that Said ignored the criticisms against Orientalism raised by
his predecessors. Aijaz Ahmed comments that others have deconstructed
Orientalism much better than Edward Said had done. Said didn’t analyze Orientalism
in the angle of race; Aijaz Ahmed says this while talking from the Marxist
point of view.
It
is pointed out that one of the main disadvantages of Edward Said is that he
failed to see the criticisms raised in the West against the model of approach
of Orientalism. Another criticism is that while Said analyzed Orientalism he
didn’t do much to defend its onslaught. He was also not able to suggest instead
of Orientalism. A criticism has also been raised that the tuning of Said
regarding East and West are uniform in nature. Said’s silence about the German
Orientalism which hasn’t established colonies in the East and hasn’t joined the
imperial powers has also raised criticism. Critics also say he mixed knowledge
and ideology. His de-colonial critics think that he borrowed the Orientalist analytical
options to analyze and scrutinize Orientalism.
Conclusion
Criticisms
only raise the reading value of any book. Said has addressed about the criticisms
while he was alive in the prefaces of the later editions. The books written
after ‘Orientalism’ like ‘The question of Palestine’, ‘Covering Islam’,
‘Cultural imperialism’ can be considered as the completion of ‘Orientalism’.
These books like ‘Orientalism’ too are milestones in the post-colonial studies.
